The Fall of Constantinople and Humanism in the Renaissance

Map of the Eastern Mediterranean before the Fall of Constantinople.

At the end of the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks became the most powerful empire in the Middle East, and started putting pressure on the Byzantine Empire and took the majority of Asia Minor. Pope Urban V (r. 1361-1370) tried to call a crusade against the Ottomans to assist the Byzantines, but the Western powers refused to help. Under Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370-1378), some eastern European countries such as Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria allied with the Byzantines, but this was only because they were directly threatened by the Ottomans, unlike Western Europe. 

The Christian coalition was severely weakened after the Serbian army’s destruction at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Serbia and much of the Balkans fell under control of the Turks. The Western powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, France, and multiple Italian states agreed to help the Byzantines. Unfortunately their force was annihilated at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. 

Battle of Nicopolis, 25th of September 1396.

The Ottomans unsuccessfully attempted to take Constantinople on four different occasions: 1391, 1394-1402, 1411, and 1422, with Byzantine Emperor John VIII (r.1422-1428) barely holding off the Turks during the siege in 1422. The West was reluctant to help the Byzantines after this, because they thought if the Byzantines were to regain power again that the Christians of the East would eventually betray the West. 

During the reign of Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453), the Ottomans once again encircled Constantinople and also blocked the city with their navy. Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II’s army was able to overpower the Byzantine defenses rather quickly, and on May 29, 1453, the walls of Constantinople were breached by the Turks. 

Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos.

Emperor Constantine defended the city with his men until he was killed in action, along with most of the Byzantine army. After the Turks took the city, they looted cathedrals and palaces of their values, and converted churches into mosques. During the brutal conquest, the Ottomans murdered, raped, forcibly converted, and enslaved the population of the city, acquiring 50,000 new slaves as a result of their victory. 

The Fall of Constantinople marked the end to the last remnants of the Roman Empire, and made the Ottoman Empire the most powerful empire in Europe. Vicious and persistent, the Ottomans would continue to push further into Europe, but would finally be stopped 200 years later. Sultan Mehmed II would go down in history as one of the most famous Ottoman rulers, and earned a new name: Mehmed the Conqueror. 

Mehmed the Conqueror entering Constantinople.

During the Renaissance, there was a revival of ancient Greek sources and material. This led to a rise in secularism, and made scholars look at the world more through a worldly lens and less of a spiritual one. Francesco Petracra (1304-1374) was one such scholar, and was an early humanist. Petraca claimed that he was living in a barbaric time, adding that the Greeks and Romans of ancient times were more enlightened than barbaric Europeans of the Middle Ages.  

Early Medieval Hymns

The Medieval Era — Kaitlin Bove Music
Medieval painting depicting musicians.

The majority of people in Medieval times were illiterate, so their literature could not include reading. Therefore, literature for an illiterate society consisted of: folk songs, liturgical hymns, recited stories (folklore), recited poetry, jokes, proverbs, and limited amounts of theater. Western Church literature was basic to Medieval society and liturgical hymns were the most popular form of this style. These religious songs, as well as, prayers and stories were also passed down through the ages. 

Because there is no widespread reading and writing in an illiterate society, the vast majority of Medieval literature was not preserved in written form other than what monasteries thought was important enough to copy. Folklore may seem like it is easily passed down through the ages, which is true. However it is almost always significantly altered over time, making it nearly impossible to know what was the original. Moreover, It is also difficult to imagine how a church congregation would memorize hymns without change, due to the fact that there was no musical notation and the words were not written down. Monastics, theologians, and scholars were the only chance for preservation. 

The Joys of Paradise was a popular hymn in the Early Middle Ages. Its themes include the unchanging nature of heaven and darkness of history, asserting that there is personal, ethical progress but no historical progress. Seeking to escape the carnal prison of flesh, the soul is always ethically righteous. In heaven, there will be singing, as it is morally and spiritually clean. There will also be endless days, no change, no progress, no privacy, no ambition, and even hunger, but Augustine said that there would always be food to satisfy it. 

Aurelius Clemens Prudentius was an Early Roman Christian poet whose works are still somewhat preserved. Age changed his perspective so he saw the futility of his worldly accomplishments, which will all be annulled by death, and his mind lost the world he loved. He equated morning with redemption, and stated that sin flourished in darkness, whereas light symbolized ethical purity and conquered darkness. Some of Prudentius’s other themes were: God foresees everything and knows all secrets, being a lawyer, involved, and successful, is futile. Instead, Prudentius advised to rejoice with songs of praise, since God’s judgement chases away evil. Pray and God will sanctify you.

The Hundred Years War and the Great Western Schism

European borders at the start of the 14th Century.

In 1308, Edward II became king of England and proceeded to let the government fall into the hands of dishonorable people while he devoted himself to pleasure. Edward II was deposed for this in 1326, and was murdered the following year. Consequently, his 15 year old son, Edward III was crowned king and it was under his reign that parliament was first used. At this time, the king had the authority to summon or dissolve parliament, but he did not have the right to change a law passed by the assembly.

John Wyclif (1320-1384) was a priest and professor at Oxford University and was one of the first people to promote the idea of predestination, which would later be pushed by reformationists like John Calvin. Wyclif stated that all Christians are priests, someone in a state of sin should lose all their rights, and a church or priest owning property defies the teachings of Christ. A party inside the English parliament adopted Wyclif’s teachings and aimed to forcefully take property from churches, monasteries, and clergy. Wyclif urged that the Church of England separate from the Catholic Church. After the Peasant’s Revolt of 1381, the government abandoned support for Wyclif.

John Wyclif.

In France, King Phillip IV was succeeded by his son Louis X, who died in 1316, leaving his brother Phillip V as monarch. Some rival factions tried to elect Louis X’s four-year-old daughter as Queen, but they were ruled against by Phillip V’s supporters. Phillip V died without a son in 1322, which led to his brother Charles IV being installed as king. 

Ever since William the Conquerer invaded England in 1066, English kings had controlled portions of Northern France. During the 13th century, France had taken back much of this territory. Both sides claimed the Duchy of Flanders (modern-day Belgium), while there was also a dispute over Gascony. After French king Charles IV died without an heir in 1328, English king Edward III claimed the French throne for England. Phillip VI of France contested Edward who accepted the loss, but later tried to take France again in 1337. Eventually, Phillip VI and Edward III declared war on each other, starting the Hundred Years War. 

English victory at the Battle of Crecy, August 26, 1346.

Although the English were outnumbered two to one (30,000 to 15,000) they defeated the French at the Battle of Crecy in 1346, inflicting heavy casualties. In the early stages of the war, there were many English victories and England made significant gains in Northern France. At the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, the English destroyed half of the French army and captured their king, John the Good. 

France’s new king, Charles V, slowly pushed the English back slowly over the next 50 years and reduced them to small holdouts in Northern France. However, Charles V’s successor, Charles VI “The Mad” (r. 1380-1422), reduced France to infighting and civil strife. A second phase of the war started in the early 15th century and English king Henry V won at the Battle of Agincourt, where the English were again heavily outnumbered (8,000-25,000) but managed to kill 8,000 Frenchmen while only taking 600 casualties. After this major victory, the Burgundians allied with the English, who had taken most of Northern France by 1428.

Joan of Arc leading French troops at the Siege of Orleans.

The English army made it all the way to the city of Orleans in central France, which they besieged for 6 months. The French, commanded by Joan of Arc, broke the blockade and destroyed the English army in 1429. In 1453, a peace treaty ended the war, and the English only retained the city of Calais in far Northern France. 

Pope Urban VI.

Meanwhile, there was a call for the Pope and the cardinals to become Italian or “Roman.” The cardinals agreed to elect an Italian Pope, Urban VI, who was usually known for his even temperament, yet randomly denounced Church officials and even assaulted one. Therefore, the  cardinals chose a French Pope, Clement VII to replace him, but Urban refused to abdicate, which started the Western Schism. After more than 30 years, the Catholic Church was reunited after the Council of Constance (1414-1418) and the election of Pope Martin V. The Western Schism damaged the unity and image of the Church, and lessened the Pope’s power.