“The Song of Roland” was the most popular epic poem written in Ancient Greece since The Iliad or The Odyssey. Composed after 1015, it was meant to persuade people to fight after Pope Urban II’s call to crusade. The earliest full copy still intact is from the mid-1100s and is in the Anglo-Norman language. Extremely popular when it was composed, the poem was still widely read up until the mid-1300s, with translations written in German, Dutch, and old Norse.

Although it was based on a true event, Charlemagne’s Invasion of Spain in 778, the famous work contains many mythical aspects. Charlemagne invaded to assist one Muslim king to oust a different Muslim ruler. During the raid he also attacked a Basque city, where the residents were depicted as Muslim but in reality were mostly pagan. The rearguard of Charlemagne’s army which was attacked by the Basques, was led by Roland. This period in Spanish history dwhen Christian forces attempted to get rid of all Muslim forces was known as the “reconquista” and lasted from 722-1492. The Muslim incursions were crushing and reached Southern France until they were crucially defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Repeating that Charlemagne was over 200 years old during his reign, while truthfully he was only 35 is an example of a legendary aspect to this epic poem. 

Charlemagne had defeated all the Muslims in Spain except Marsilie who had only 20,000 troops. Trying to deceive Charlemagne, Marsilie sent Blanacandrin as his emissary. Ganelon, Roland’s step-father, advised Charlemagne to take the offer of peace, while Roland said to reject it. After this, Ganelon and Blanacandrin swore to kill Roland. Somehow, Marsilie had accrued 400,000 troops, forcing the Frankish forces to depart to France. Suckered by Ganelon, Roland led the rearguard which was meant to protect against attacks during a retreat. Marsilie’s plan was to have 100,000 soldiers attack Roland in the first wave, then 300,000 more in wave two. Due to honor, Roland refused to blow the trumpet to signify that he needed help from Charlemagne, proclaiming that if he was to die, he wanted to be remembered as a hero, not a coward. Despite all this, Oliver, the second in command of the rearguard, begged him to blow the trumpet. Miraculously, the 100,000 Muslims of the first wave were defeated by only 20,000 led by Roland. In the second wave, 4,000 more Muslims were slain, but all of the senior knights of Roland’s army were then killed one-by-one. 

These deaths are described in great detail in the poem. Down to only 60 men, they valiantly launched a desperate last-ditch assault on the remaining 100,000 Muslims, who fled in terror. Roland finally accepted Oliver’s pleas to blow the trumpet for assistance. Charlemagne heard this and mounted up to return. Nevertheless, Oliver was killed in battle and Ganelon’s betrayal was discovered.

Thomas Aquinas was one of the most important philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages and still greatly influences Catholic theology to this day. He is known for using reason, instead of faith to prove God’s existence. 

Written in the 13th Century, the “Quinque Viae,” meaning “Five Ways,” used five arguments based on reason to prove the existence of God. Unmoved Mover, the first way, stated that the universe could not continue to exist, and change could not occur without God keeping it going and being a source of change. According to the second way, everything in the universe has a source and is thus an effect of that source, if a given event occurs, then it is the result of a previous related event. Aquinas called this universal causation. His third way called contingency, added that there are certain things which are possible and possible not to be, if everything is contingent and capable of going out of existence, nothing would exist now. Therefore, there must be something – a higher power that is imperishable and necessary: God. Degree, the Fourth Way listed by Aquinas, asserted that there are certain things which vary in degree of “goodness,” i.e. some things in the world are better than others like, healthy versus sick, alive versus dead, tall versus short. Hence, there must be something which is best and most true that judges and gives goodness. This too is God, who causes good in all else. The Fifth and final reason told by Saint Thomas Aquinas was cause or ends, meaning that various objects which lack intelligence still behave in regular or predictable ways, this cannot be due to chance since then they would have unpredictable results. So their behavior must be set by someone or something, as it cannot be by itself since it is not intelligent. Again, God is the One setting their behavior. 

Reason and rhetoric were the main tools used by Aquinas to prove not only God’s existence but also his divine attributes. Around the same time the Quinque Viae was published, Aquinas asserted five of God’s divine attributes. 1: There is only one God. 2: God never changes. 3: God is all powerful, afterall, how could He give powers to others while not possessing them Himself. 4: Since humans have intellect and will, God also possesses them. 5: Finally, God is perfect, 100% divine, and all-knowing with no negative features and no room for improvement.

Most famous for writing his autobiography “The Confessions” and the philosophical treatise “The City of God,” Augustine also penned numerous sermons which were meant to both inspire remembrance throughout the generations and to persuade others. Sometimes convoluted and complex, his sermons were not even read by many common people at the time. 

Augustine’s writings focused on persecution, when he said that another person can kill your body, but never your soul, thus Augustine advised to fear God instead of persecutors and to beware the death of your soul, since God will kill it if you act unrighteously. Augustine’s sermon called “sheep and wolves” focused on serpents and doves. He spoke of old snakes shedding their skin and compared this with abandoning the “old man,” or old ways of sin, and Christians as peaceful like doves but also wise like serpents. 

Citing martyrs as a strong example to all other faithful, Augustine’s main point was that they accepted the death of their body in exchange for the life of their eternal soul; they wouldn’t betray Christ. Using Peter as an example, Augustine asserted that he represented the Church and the Christian people, because when one trusts Christ they will not sink. However, when trust in oneself is larger than trust in God, he will sink in the stormy sea as did Peter. Moreover, the world is the sea, pulling people into its dangerous water, with a great threat being tranquility in life. When times are good, people let their guards down to temptations. 

Although tribulations, hardships, and persecutions may seem like the most dangerous and likely ways one might break away from Christ, Augustine urged Christians to be on guard against the offenses of the world, including enticements from friends or family. When asked how to resist these pitfalls, Augustine advised to obey God’s law and avoid being pleased with oneself for good deeds, as this only happens because of God’s grace. So strong is God’s grace, that it can even transform heathens and barbarians into people of God. Augustine thought that the world was old and failing and Christians were pilgrims therein. Eventually, all of creation would pass away, he surmised that there was no possibility of the world improving throughout history.