During the 12th Century, there was a revival of Classic Latin works from the time of the Romans, which was known as the 12th Century Renaissance. John of Salisbury (d. 1180) was one of the most knowledgeable finders of Roman poetry during this period and helped bring about a resurgence of poets like Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero. This era also focused on philosophy and science, with many Muslim astronomers and doctors translating old Greek works in Arabic. Due to this renaissance in thinking, European universities started requiring students to read all of Aristotle’s works. 

The universities of the Middle Ages were the first scholarly systems which had a fixed program of study. Degrees were first invented, and taught students to hone their expertise in a certain subject. Some major early universities include Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and Bologna. During this time, universities needed a charter from either the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor to start, and the Church often assisted in funding the university in return. 

Scholastic Philosophy was a movement from Positive Theology to Speculative Theology, which is the study of faith that is consistent with reason. St. Anselm (1033-1109) and Peter Abelard (1079-1142) were pivotal renaissance writers who asked questions about the proof of God’s existence. Peter Lombard (1096-1160) wrote four books covering God, the Trinity, and the Creation of Man. St. Albert the Great (1200-1280), known as one of the greatest scholars and theologians of the Middle Ages, also studied Scholastic Philosophy during the period. 

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was one of the most influential theologians of the late Middle Ages. He attended the University of Naples as a young man and entered the Dominicans  at the age of 19. His family was opposed to this and imprisoned him for a year, during which he memorized the Bible and decided to become a theologian. Aquinas studied in Paris and eventually taught theology in universities in Paris, Cologne, Bologna, Rome, and Naples, even assisting the Pope with his theological studies and writing hymns. Rivaling the writings of Aristotle, Aquinas tried to connect Christian theology to old Greek philosophy. 

Because he wanted to focus on intellectual work, Thomas Aquinas refused Pope Clement IV’s offer to become the Archbishop of Naples. He wrote that there were three kinds of knowledge: knowledge from reason alone, knowledge from reason and revelation, and knowledge from revelation alone. Thomas Aquinas inspired the western Catholic Christians to become more interested in philosophy and reason as opposed to the Eastern Orthodox, who continued to focus on the traditional faith that had been practiced since the time of Christ: one that was more mystical in nature, and less man-centered. 

After the Sack of Rome by barbarians in 410, many people in the Roman Empire thought this was retribution from the gods caused by the legalization of Christianity. Some Christians even converted back to paganism because of this belief. In order to assure the faithful that they were not the cause of Rome’s fall, Augustine of Hippo wrote his book “The City of God.”

Augustine explained that the City of God is eternal, whereas the city of man (the Roman Empire) is not. Stating that the critics of Christians are hypocrites he proclaimed that they are only alive because God has given them life. Augustine taught that good times and turbulent times will come in history, so Christians should be ready for the Judgement Day at all times. 

Augustine wrote that suicide is one of the greatest evils a person can do. He also advised that while Christians should not be concerned about the evil a person does, they should not consent to his temptations. Describing Rome as more immoral than ever, he stated that the empire is based on bloodshed and greed. 

Man began in The City of God (the Garden of Eden) but lost it when Adam sinned. However, God will elect some faithful people on earth to be in the new City of God: heaven. The earthly city is no longer of God, so it is divided by war and famine. Augustine wrote that one man exercising dominance over another man was not intended by God, and wrote that slavery and war are a consequence of sin. He proclaimed that the laws of the ungodly have not true justice. 

Augustine denied the importance of earthly politics, urging that the Church is the only power necessary on earth. The Church will serve as the guide to Christendom, he wrote, not any earthly kingdom. 

Between 397 and 400, Augustine of Hippo wrote the book “Confessions” in which he described his crisis of faith, his sinful youth, and his conversion to Christianity. One of the first major autobiographies written in latin, “Confessions” is considered by many to be one of the great masterpieces of Western literature. 

Augustine wrote that in his early life, he was a Manichaeist and even worshiped the stars, stating that he practiced astrology and thought that the universe was not controlled by a god. Augustine explained that during his youth, he stole things for no reason simply because he found pleasure in it, that he had many lovers, and was lustful. 

During his early adulthood, Augustine had a child with a woman to whom he was not married and did not love. However, Augustine decided to marry her, but had many mistresses. He was lost, and wrote that he did not understand the purpose of life. Thankfully, Augustine’s  friends helped convince him that Christianity was the most logical and plausible religion in the world. 

Eventually converting, Augustine was still depressed since he felt like he did not deserve to make it to God’s kingdom when he died. Because of their earthly sacrifice, Augustine stated that the martyrs have a place in heaven, but he will not due to his sacrifice to men instead of God. 

Since the book “Confessions” was composed after Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and martyrdom was no longer a threat, Augustine believed more than ever that he could not obtain a place in heaven because of his sin. He said his lust and lack of faith made him melancholy, writing that “A starving beggar is happier than I.” Nevertheless, Augustine did conclude that Christianity was the true faith and that the trinity is the most rational conclusion to the question of the universe.