Category Archives: History

Humanism and Renaissance Art

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Italian scholar Niccolo Machiavelli.

By the 15th century, many scholars in Western Europe adopted humanism, the belief that humans and earthly inventions are better than Christianity, the Church, or religion in general. Civic humanism is when these scholars put their worldviews at the service of the state government causing many influential people in Europe to become humanist. Consequently, they started to claim that the Catholic Church should not have as much influence on government. 

One of these humanists was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) who wrote “The Prince” (1513), which contrasts medieval works with politics, and ancient and contemporary sources on morals. Machiavelli stated that the government should do whatever it needs to maintain itself and be prepared to act immorally if necessary. In fact, he wrote that in order to maintain its power, the state must “act treacherously, ruthlessly, and inhumanely.” Because he saw Christian governments as being bound to morality, Machiavelli wanted to bring back ancient forms of government like the Roman form.

In the early 15th century, the Florence Cathedral commissioned bronze doors to be made for the baptistery and had a competition between seven artists to make them. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455) won and we still have his submission today. Ghiberti crafted 28 panels for this church that were so grand even fellow painter and sculptor Michelangelo described them as “so fine that they would grace the entrance of paradise.” Ghiberti’s assistant, Donatello (1386-1466) made use of his time working for the great artist and created the Statue of David (1440). 

Bronze doors of the baptistery on the Florence Cathedral.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), considered the first great architect of the Renaissance, completed the dome of the Cathedral in Florence, while Michelangelo planned the dome of Saint Peter’s Cathedral in Vatican City. Another influential architect, Leon Battista Albert (1404-1472) made a guild of other young builders to help him with his work. Cimabue (1240-1302) is famous for the mosaic of Saint John, and although he still used made elements from the Eastern Byzantine style of religious architecture, his works were considered a step forward towards portraying emotion and realism.

Cimabue influenced medieval painter Giotto (1276-1337) who made his figures realistically and portrayed more feeling. This can be seen especially in his painting “The Kiss of Judas.” During the 13th and 14th centuries perspective and foreshadowing started to develop more and more. 

Masaccio (1401-1428) pioneered the use of light and shade to provide detail, and influenced later painters in the next century even though he died at a young age. Paolo Uccelo (1397-1475) put exceptional emphasis on perspective in his work “The Hunt By Night” and Fra Angelico (1387-1455) is known as the last medieval painter before most artists switched to Renaissance style. 

“The Hunt By Night” by Paolo Uccelo (1470).

Starting in the 14th Century, Catholic painters in Western Europe used more detail and portrayed emotion and perspective in religious paintings, whereas in Eastern Orthodox churches they continued to use the traditional Byzantine style, which still persists today in Russian and Greek churches. 

The Fall of Constantinople and Humanism in the Renaissance

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Map of the Eastern Mediterranean before the Fall of Constantinople.

At the end of the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks became the most powerful empire in the Middle East, and started putting pressure on the Byzantine Empire and took the majority of Asia Minor. Pope Urban V (r. 1361-1370) tried to call a crusade against the Ottomans to assist the Byzantines, but the Western powers refused to help. Under Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370-1378), some eastern European countries such as Hungary, Serbia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria allied with the Byzantines, but this was only because they were directly threatened by the Ottomans, unlike Western Europe. 

The Christian coalition was severely weakened after the Serbian army’s destruction at the Battle of Maritsa in 1371. After the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Serbia and much of the Balkans fell under control of the Turks. The Western powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, France, and multiple Italian states agreed to help the Byzantines. Unfortunately their force was annihilated at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. 

Battle of Nicopolis, 25th of September 1396.

The Ottomans unsuccessfully attempted to take Constantinople on four different occasions: 1391, 1394-1402, 1411, and 1422, with Byzantine Emperor John VIII (r.1422-1428) barely holding off the Turks during the siege in 1422. The West was reluctant to help the Byzantines after this, because they thought if the Byzantines were to regain power again that the Christians of the East would eventually betray the West. 

During the reign of Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453), the Ottomans once again encircled Constantinople and also blocked the city with their navy. Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II’s army was able to overpower the Byzantine defenses rather quickly, and on May 29, 1453, the walls of Constantinople were breached by the Turks. 

Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos.

Emperor Constantine defended the city with his men until he was killed in action, along with most of the Byzantine army. After the Turks took the city, they looted cathedrals and palaces of their values, and converted churches into mosques. During the brutal conquest, the Ottomans murdered, raped, forcibly converted, and enslaved the population of the city, acquiring 50,000 new slaves as a result of their victory. 

The Fall of Constantinople marked the end to the last remnants of the Roman Empire, and made the Ottoman Empire the most powerful empire in Europe. Vicious and persistent, the Ottomans would continue to push further into Europe, but would finally be stopped 200 years later. Sultan Mehmed II would go down in history as one of the most famous Ottoman rulers, and earned a new name: Mehmed the Conqueror. 

Mehmed the Conqueror entering Constantinople.

During the Renaissance, there was a revival of ancient Greek sources and material. This led to a rise in secularism, and made scholars look at the world more through a worldly lens and less of a spiritual one. Francesco Petracra (1304-1374) was one such scholar, and was an early humanist. Petraca claimed that he was living in a barbaric time, adding that the Greeks and Romans of ancient times were more enlightened than barbaric Europeans of the Middle Ages.  

Early Medieval Hymns

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The Medieval Era — Kaitlin Bove Music
Medieval painting depicting musicians.

The majority of people in Medieval times were illiterate, so their literature could not include reading. Therefore, literature for an illiterate society consisted of: folk songs, liturgical hymns, recited stories (folklore), recited poetry, jokes, proverbs, and limited amounts of theater. Western Church literature was basic to Medieval society and liturgical hymns were the most popular form of this style. These religious songs, as well as, prayers and stories were also passed down through the ages. 

Because there is no widespread reading and writing in an illiterate society, the vast majority of Medieval literature was not preserved in written form other than what monasteries thought was important enough to copy. Folklore may seem like it is easily passed down through the ages, which is true. However it is almost always significantly altered over time, making it nearly impossible to know what was the original. Moreover, It is also difficult to imagine how a church congregation would memorize hymns without change, due to the fact that there was no musical notation and the words were not written down. Monastics, theologians, and scholars were the only chance for preservation. 

The Joys of Paradise was a popular hymn in the Early Middle Ages. Its themes include the unchanging nature of heaven and darkness of history, asserting that there is personal, ethical progress but no historical progress. Seeking to escape the carnal prison of flesh, the soul is always ethically righteous. In heaven, there will be singing, as it is morally and spiritually clean. There will also be endless days, no change, no progress, no privacy, no ambition, and even hunger, but Augustine said that there would always be food to satisfy it. 

Aurelius Clemens Prudentius was an Early Roman Christian poet whose works are still somewhat preserved. Age changed his perspective so he saw the futility of his worldly accomplishments, which will all be annulled by death, and his mind lost the world he loved. He equated morning with redemption, and stated that sin flourished in darkness, whereas light symbolized ethical purity and conquered darkness. Some of Prudentius’s other themes were: God foresees everything and knows all secrets, being a lawyer, involved, and successful, is futile. Instead, Prudentius advised to rejoice with songs of praise, since God’s judgement chases away evil. Pray and God will sanctify you.