Category Archives: History

Early Medieval Hymns

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The Medieval Era — Kaitlin Bove Music
Medieval painting depicting musicians.

The majority of people in Medieval times were illiterate, so their literature could not include reading. Therefore, literature for an illiterate society consisted of: folk songs, liturgical hymns, recited stories (folklore), recited poetry, jokes, proverbs, and limited amounts of theater. Western Church literature was basic to Medieval society and liturgical hymns were the most popular form of this style. These religious songs, as well as, prayers and stories were also passed down through the ages. 

Because there is no widespread reading and writing in an illiterate society, the vast majority of Medieval literature was not preserved in written form other than what monasteries thought was important enough to copy. Folklore may seem like it is easily passed down through the ages, which is true. However it is almost always significantly altered over time, making it nearly impossible to know what was the original. Moreover, It is also difficult to imagine how a church congregation would memorize hymns without change, due to the fact that there was no musical notation and the words were not written down. Monastics, theologians, and scholars were the only chance for preservation. 

The Joys of Paradise was a popular hymn in the Early Middle Ages. Its themes include the unchanging nature of heaven and darkness of history, asserting that there is personal, ethical progress but no historical progress. Seeking to escape the carnal prison of flesh, the soul is always ethically righteous. In heaven, there will be singing, as it is morally and spiritually clean. There will also be endless days, no change, no progress, no privacy, no ambition, and even hunger, but Augustine said that there would always be food to satisfy it. 

Aurelius Clemens Prudentius was an Early Roman Christian poet whose works are still somewhat preserved. Age changed his perspective so he saw the futility of his worldly accomplishments, which will all be annulled by death, and his mind lost the world he loved. He equated morning with redemption, and stated that sin flourished in darkness, whereas light symbolized ethical purity and conquered darkness. Some of Prudentius’s other themes were: God foresees everything and knows all secrets, being a lawyer, involved, and successful, is futile. Instead, Prudentius advised to rejoice with songs of praise, since God’s judgement chases away evil. Pray and God will sanctify you.

The Hundred Years War and the Great Western Schism

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European borders at the start of the 14th Century.

In 1308, Edward II became king of England and proceeded to let the government fall into the hands of dishonorable people while he devoted himself to pleasure. Edward II was deposed for this in 1326, and was murdered the following year. Consequently, his 15 year old son, Edward III was crowned king and it was under his reign that parliament was first used. At this time, the king had the authority to summon or dissolve parliament, but he did not have the right to change a law passed by the assembly.

John Wyclif (1320-1384) was a priest and professor at Oxford University and was one of the first people to promote the idea of predestination, which would later be pushed by reformationists like John Calvin. Wyclif stated that all Christians are priests, someone in a state of sin should lose all their rights, and a church or priest owning property defies the teachings of Christ. A party inside the English parliament adopted Wyclif’s teachings and aimed to forcefully take property from churches, monasteries, and clergy. Wyclif urged that the Church of England separate from the Catholic Church. After the Peasant’s Revolt of 1381, the government abandoned support for Wyclif.

John Wyclif.

In France, King Phillip IV was succeeded by his son Louis X, who died in 1316, leaving his brother Phillip V as monarch. Some rival factions tried to elect Louis X’s four-year-old daughter as Queen, but they were ruled against by Phillip V’s supporters. Phillip V died without a son in 1322, which led to his brother Charles IV being installed as king. 

Ever since William the Conquerer invaded England in 1066, English kings had controlled portions of Northern France. During the 13th century, France had taken back much of this territory. Both sides claimed the Duchy of Flanders (modern-day Belgium), while there was also a dispute over Gascony. After French king Charles IV died without an heir in 1328, English king Edward III claimed the French throne for England. Phillip VI of France contested Edward who accepted the loss, but later tried to take France again in 1337. Eventually, Phillip VI and Edward III declared war on each other, starting the Hundred Years War. 

English victory at the Battle of Crecy, August 26, 1346.

Although the English were outnumbered two to one (30,000 to 15,000) they defeated the French at the Battle of Crecy in 1346, inflicting heavy casualties. In the early stages of the war, there were many English victories and England made significant gains in Northern France. At the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, the English destroyed half of the French army and captured their king, John the Good. 

France’s new king, Charles V, slowly pushed the English back slowly over the next 50 years and reduced them to small holdouts in Northern France. However, Charles V’s successor, Charles VI “The Mad” (r. 1380-1422), reduced France to infighting and civil strife. A second phase of the war started in the early 15th century and English king Henry V won at the Battle of Agincourt, where the English were again heavily outnumbered (8,000-25,000) but managed to kill 8,000 Frenchmen while only taking 600 casualties. After this major victory, the Burgundians allied with the English, who had taken most of Northern France by 1428.

Joan of Arc leading French troops at the Siege of Orleans.

The English army made it all the way to the city of Orleans in central France, which they besieged for 6 months. The French, commanded by Joan of Arc, broke the blockade and destroyed the English army in 1429. In 1453, a peace treaty ended the war, and the English only retained the city of Calais in far Northern France. 

Pope Urban VI.

Meanwhile, there was a call for the Pope and the cardinals to become Italian or “Roman.” The cardinals agreed to elect an Italian Pope, Urban VI, who was usually known for his even temperament, yet randomly denounced Church officials and even assaulted one. Therefore, the  cardinals chose a French Pope, Clement VII to replace him, but Urban refused to abdicate, which started the Western Schism. After more than 30 years, the Catholic Church was reunited after the Council of Constance (1414-1418) and the election of Pope Martin V. The Western Schism damaged the unity and image of the Church, and lessened the Pope’s power. 

Thomas Aquinas: the Quinque Viae and the Divine Attributes

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The Wisdom of St. Thomas Aquinas - A Life of Service
Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas was one of the most important philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages and still greatly influences Catholic theology to this day. He is known for using reason, instead of faith to prove God’s existence. 

Written in the 13th Century, the “Quinque Viae,” meaning “Five Ways,” used five arguments based on reason to prove the existence of God. Unmoved Mover, the first way, stated that the universe could not continue to exist, and change could not occur without God keeping it going and being a source of change. According to the second way, everything in the universe has a source and is thus an effect of that source, if a given event occurs, then it is the result of a previous related event. Aquinas called this universal causation. His third way called contingency, added that there are certain things which are possible and possible not to be, if everything is contingent and capable of going out of existence, nothing would exist now. Therefore, there must be something – a higher power that is imperishable and necessary: God. Degree, the Fourth Way listed by Aquinas, asserted that there are certain things which vary in degree of “goodness,” i.e. some things in the world are better than others like, healthy versus sick, alive versus dead, tall versus short. Hence, there must be something which is best and most true that judges and gives goodness. This too is God, who causes good in all else. The Fifth and final reason told by Saint Thomas Aquinas was cause or ends, meaning that various objects which lack intelligence still behave in regular or predictable ways, this cannot be due to chance since then they would have unpredictable results. So their behavior must be set by someone or something, as it cannot be by itself since it is not intelligent. Again, God is the One setting their behavior. 

Reason and rhetoric were the main tools used by Aquinas to prove not only God’s existence but also his divine attributes. Around the same time the Quinque Viae was published, Aquinas asserted five of God’s divine attributes. 1: There is only one God. 2: God never changes. 3: God is all powerful, afterall, how could He give powers to others while not possessing them Himself. 4: Since humans have intellect and will, God also possesses them. 5: Finally, God is perfect, 100% divine, and all-knowing with no negative features and no room for improvement.