Although “The Song of Roland” is not historically accurate, it was considered by people to be a historical account at the time of its writing and inspired a fervent call to war against Islam and for more Crusades. Nevertheless, the poem is inconsistent, for instance the Franks had 120,000 men (20,000 of those were killed in action) at the beginning of the final battle, then somehow had 335,000. The pagan leader, Marsilie, had 20,000 men when the Franks went back to France, then had 400,000 troops when he attacked the rearguard. All of the Franks under Roland were killed, yet there was somehow an eyewitness. After Roland’s rearguard was attacked by Marsilie only three men remained: Roland, Turpin, and Gautier del Hum. Still, 40,000 cavalry and 1,000 infantry were supposedly afraid to march on these last three wounded knights. Miraculously, the injured archbishop Turpin killed 400 in his final stand, and Roland was slain as he tried to save the relics stored in his sword. 

Arriving to find his slaughtered rearguard, Charlemagne pursued the Muslims and won the battle after God stopped the setting of the sun in order to aid him. However the war was far from over, as the Muslim Emir arrived in Spain and vowed to Allah that he would defeat the French King, who returned to the battlefield and lamented Roland’s death. 

While he slept with his lance containing the spear of destiny, Charlemagne dreamt of two military conflicts but could not tell what either of the outcomes would be. When he awoke, there would be the final battle against the Emir: 335,000 Franks versus 3.5 million Muslims, who arrived in Spain on 4,000 ships. The two armies began to fight fiercely and God sent the Archangel Gabriel to aid Charlemagne. After the battle was over, a victorious Charlemagne now controlled all of Spain and sent the Arabs fleeing back to their homeland. Forced to convert to Christianity or die, many of the Muslims were executed, although 100,000 converted. Ganelon, the betrayer of Roland, received justice by being executed along with 29 of his relatives. Despite his unbelievable victory and his complete control of Spain, Charlemagne was informed by an angel that he had more major battles to fight against the evil forces of Islam. Hearing this, the battle-weary King wept and pulled his beard. 

The poem offers the sovereignty of God as the explanation for the stunning victories won by Charlemagne. Along with being a battle cry against Islam, the influential work is also about hubris and death. Roland was prideful, Charlemagne was not; rather he listened to the council. Described as a hero for his sacrifice leading to Charlemagne’s ultimate triumph, Roland was also responsible for his own death and 20,000 others due to his self-absorbed nature.

The majority of people in Medieval times were illiterate, so their literature could not include reading. Therefore, literature for an illiterate society consisted of: folk songs, liturgical hymns, recited stories (folklore), recited poetry, jokes, proverbs, and limited amounts of theater. Western Church literature was basic to Medieval society and liturgical hymns were the most popular form of this style. These religious songs, as well as, prayers and stories were also passed down through the ages. 

Because there is no widespread reading and writing in an illiterate society, the vast majority of Medieval literature was not preserved in written form other than what monasteries thought was important enough to copy. Folklore may seem like it is easily passed down through the ages, which is true. However it is almost always significantly altered over time, making it nearly impossible to know what was the original. Moreover, It is also difficult to imagine how a church congregation would memorize hymns without change, due to the fact that there was no musical notation and the words were not written down. Monastics, theologians, and scholars were the only chance for preservation. 

The Joys of Paradise was a popular hymn in the Early Middle Ages. Its themes include the unchanging nature of heaven and darkness of history, asserting that there is personal, ethical progress but no historical progress. Seeking to escape the carnal prison of flesh, the soul is always ethically righteous. In heaven, there will be singing, as it is morally and spiritually clean. There will also be endless days, no change, no progress, no privacy, no ambition, and even hunger, but Augustine said that there would always be food to satisfy it. 

Aurelius Clemens Prudentius was an Early Roman Christian poet whose works are still somewhat preserved. Age changed his perspective so he saw the futility of his worldly accomplishments, which will all be annulled by death, and his mind lost the world he loved. He equated morning with redemption, and stated that sin flourished in darkness, whereas light symbolized ethical purity and conquered darkness. Some of Prudentius’s other themes were: God foresees everything and knows all secrets, being a lawyer, involved, and successful, is futile. Instead, Prudentius advised to rejoice with songs of praise, since God’s judgement chases away evil. Pray and God will sanctify you.

Despite being created in the mid-12th century, the Holy Roman Empire would go on to be one of the longest-lasting political units in European history. One of the main reasons for this endurance was its decentralization, as the empire was composed of many smaller duchies and fiefdoms, making it easier to rule. 

In 1152, Frederick Barbarossa became King of Germany. He wanted to fight back against decentralization and sought to restore imperial authority over not only Germany but also Lombardy in Northern Italy. Ruling from 1155-1190, he was the first Holy Roman Emperor and imagined the glory of the old Roman Empire. This attempt at centralization by Barbarossa did not sit well with the papacy, due to the fact that Lombardy was inside their sphere of influence in Italy. If it was taken over, the Pope would lose much of the Catholic Church’s power and influence over other secular rulers. Because of this, the Lombards and the Papal States allied, with Frederick responding by burning the city of Milan in Northern Italy. Ultimately, Frederick was defeated by the combined Papal and Lombard force, and was forced to make up with the Pope and recognize Lombardy as a sovereign nation.  After Barbarossa’s death in 1190, there were two candidates for Holy Roman Empire elected by two different families: the Hohenstaufens and Welfs. The Welf candidate, Otto, promised to obey the church while the Hohenstaufen candidate and Barbarossa’s son, Frederick II looked like he was going to follow in his father’s footsteps. In 1209, Otto became Emperor but surprisingly went back on his promises to the Pope when he invaded Southern Italy. In response to this, Pope Innocent II supported Frederick II who essentially became de facto Emperor after Otto’s position crumbled. Despite the support from Innocent II, Frederick II eventually became a larger foe than his father  after Sicily was fully conquered with all of their Church properties plundered. While he was victorious in Sicily, Frederick II focused so much attention on Italy that his imperial power in Germany was compromised. Frederick II was later excommunicated and intended to march on Lyon and imprison the Pope, but died in 1250. After the reigns of Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II, it was much too late to centralize the Holy Roman Empire as the German princes became too powerful. Germany would continue to be highly decentralized until the establishment of the German Empire in the 19th century.