In 76 BC, Pompey (106-48 BC), who had served under Sulla, sought a command in Spain against Sertorius, but the Senate refused. So Pompey disobeyed the Senate’s orders to disband his legions until he got control in Spain. Eventually, Pompey won a victory in Spain in 71 BC, and cleared the Mediterranean of pirates in 66 BC. For this, he was rewarded with a campaign against Mithridates. Crassus (155-53 BC), who was the richest man in Rome, and suppressed Spartacus’s slave revolt, joined Pompey as one of two consuls in 70 BC. 

Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) served as quaestor in Spain and threw support to Pompey in 67 BC. The consuls elected in 65 BC were condemned for electoral bribery after Catiline, who had served under Sulla, tried to start an uprising against the consuls after he lost an election. Caesar was rewarded with a command in Gaul after helping defeat Catiline. Pompey married Caesar’s daughter and in return Pompey’s soldiers were given a land grant. 

Backed by the Senate, Pompey later had Crassus killed while Caesar was in Gaul, and started a civil war against his former ally Caesar. Caesar won the conflict, declared himself dictator for life in 48 BC, and filled the Senate with his supporters. Although most Senators were loyal, the old Senate members still resented him and in 44 BC Julius Caesar was assassinated.

After Julius Caesar’s reign, Marc Antony was one of the only surviving associates of Caesar, and declared that Caesar’s decrees would be respected. Antony got much of Caesar’s wealth, and the Senate, which was warned by Cicero, was concerned about Antony’s power. Octavian was given the task of defeating Antony. He was successful and marched on Rome to declare himself consul. In 43 BC, Octavian declared himself “Caesar Augustus”. 

In 43 BC, the traditional process of lawmaking was disbanded, and the empire was divided up into three sections, each controlled by Augustus, Antony, and Lepidus. Augustus also killed members of the Senate who had conspired against Julius Caesar. Antony then married Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt, and tried to move the capital of the empire to Alexandria, an act which caused Augustus and Lepidus to worry about him trying to take over the empire. At the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra, who fled to Egypt and both commitied suicide. 

By 29 BC Caesar Augustus was back in Rome and spent the wealth he got from Egypt on Roman building plans. In 27 BC he told the Senate that Rome was safe and tried to give up his power. However, the Senate instead made him consul and gave him the power to override governors and exercise vetos. Caesar Augustus implemented many new reforms such as encouraging marriage, discouraging childlessness, and making marriage mandatory for men and women of a certain age. He also installed new shrines to the gods to make people more religious. 

During the first century BC, known as the Golden Age of Latin Literature, many of the greatest Roman writers composed their work. Horace (65-8 BC) was a playwright who wrote mostly satire. His most famous work was Odes, a short lyrical poem that was a great success. Virgil (born 70 BC) created two books about country life and how to have a well-maintained farm. Virgil is best known for the Aeneid, which was about the legend of Aeneas and the Trojan War. Livy (born 59 BC) wrote the entire history of Rome over 142 books. Ovid (43 BC-17 AD) wrote romantic novels and was banished to Romania by Caesar Augustus because of his writings. 

At the same time Rome’s greatest writers were doing their work, Rome changed from a republic into a dictatorship ruled by Caesars and continued to conquer land until their peak in 117 AD. 

In “Works and Days,” Hesiod described himself as the heir to a farm bequeathed to him and his brother Perses. However, Perses apparently squandered his wealth and came back for what is owed by Hesiod. Subsequently, Perses went to the law and bribed the lords to judge in his favor. The poem contains a sharp attack against unjust judges, like those who decided in favor of the greedy Perses. The judges are depicted as pocketing bribes as they render their unfair verdicts. Blaming the courts for his problem, Hesiod urged Perses to abandon the courts. He thought that it was better to teach his brother the virtues of work and to impart his wisdom which can be used to generate an income. 

In the second part of “Works and Days,” Hesiod tried to send a message that if you get wealth from mischief, then that wealth will only stay with you for a while; but if you acquire wealth in an honest way, then it will remain with you. Hesiod also instructed that generosity pays and greed does not. 

Later in the book, Hesiod offered specific advice on farming and how to manage your time wisely, probably because he thinks Perses will listen. Hesiod then warns that if you do not worship Zeus, the god will bring poverty to you and your family. Giving more counsel, Hesiod stated that you should never treat your slaves and animals poorly, and that if you marry a good wife then she will be a benefit, but a bad wife is a curse to you. 

Hesiod wrote that justice will eventually defeat the bribes that his brother offered to the corrupt judges because Zeus has 30,000 spirits that will administer justice. Zeus will also reward righteousness with prosperity. Additionally, Hesiod stated that badness is easy, but it will end badly for you, and that hard work will bring you success. 

There are various tales about how Rome started and many of them are just legends. One of the most popular of these stories is about the twins Romulus and Remus. It is said that they fed off wolves and were raised by shepherds as children, and eventually founded the city.

From 753-509 BC, Rome was governed by Etruscans. They were from the nearby city of Etruria and influenced many of the later Roman customs. During this era, Rome was still ruled by a king, who exercised complete political, military, and religious authority. Tarquin the Proud was the last Etruscan king and his oppressive rule led to him being kicked out of Rome by the aristocrats. After this, no one person could rule Rome; instead it was governed by the Office of the Consul, which was held by two people known as consuls. 

In 458 BC, Cincinnatus, a former consul, was named dictator by the people (because it was a time of crisis), but resigned after he destroyed a warring tribe within 15 days, even though he could have remained dictator for six months. 

The Greek religion impacted the Romans greatly. Eventually, the Greek gods came to be identified with the Roman ones but with each deity taking on a different name. The Romans thought there was a set of universal laws that everyone should follow, and if you broke one of them, there would be harsh punishments. This was their reasoning for conquering neighboring nations: to civilize foreigners and unify them under one rule. 

Ancient Rome had two types of social classes: the plebeians and the patricians. The plebeians were deprived of political rights and were liable to enslavement for debts, whereas the patricians held all the power. To stop this, the plebeians seceded from Rome to try to force the patricians to give them more rights. This plan worked, and in 494 BC, new rules were added to Roman law, giving plebeians legal protection. By the late 5th century BC, the plebeians were allowed to hold political office, debt slavery was abolished, in 367 BC plebeians were allowed to run for consul, and in 342 BC a new law was added which stated that at least one of the consuls had to be a plebeian. Rome was one of the first true republican governments, with a senate and an assembly to vote on bills.

 By 146 BC, Rome completely dominated the Mediterranean world with their aggressive style of fighting. In 256 BC, Rome had united all of Italy under its rule and had extended citizenship to their Italian allies. They came into conflict with Carthage during the First Punic War (264-241 BC), and Carthage was forced to give up Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia after Rome was victorious in 238 BC. 

The Second Punic War (218-202 BC) was brought on by Carthage’s hostile expansion into Spain, over which Rome had influence. Commanded by General Hannibal, Carthage destroyed the Romans at the Battle of Cannae in 216, but Carthage still could not deal a decisive blow. Later, Rome invaded North Africa, forcing Hannibal to rush back to defend the homeland. At the Battle of Zama in 202, Hannibal was defeated by Roman General Scipio Africannas, and Rome won the war. During the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Carthage was quickly defeated by Rome again. In 215 BC, Phillip V of Macedonia allied with Rome. However, Rome broke their agreement and in 205 launched the first Macedonian War, taking control of the Peloponnesian Peninsula.

After years of exhausting war, Rome had severe economic and social problems. Much of the farmland in Northern Italy had been destroyed by the fighting, causing food shortages. Consequently, many farmers sold their land to rich landowners (who used slave labor) and moved to the city. 

In 133 BC, Tiberius Gracchus pursued land reform and tried to allow more people to be eligible to serve in the military. Tiberius often bypassed the Senate to pass bills, so the Senate refused to fund his land commission. Tiberius urged the resignation of Octavius, a tribune who was influenced by the Senate, and ran for re-election. At one of Tiberius’ political rallies, the Senate, angered that Tiberius had broken the tradition of the Senate being the main political power in Rome, rushed onto the stage and beat him to death. Tiberius’ brother Gaius Gracchus also ran for tribune. He was openly hostile towards the Senate (probably because they killed his brother), and was also assassinated. 

From 91-88 BC, the Roman Social Wars took place, where a group called the Mithridates killed 80,000 Roman civilians who opposed them in Asian Minor. The Mithridates’ opponents, led by Sulla, took over Rome, but could not have his laws approved by the Senate because the Senate was pro-Mithridate.