After the Sack of Rome by barbarians in 410, many people in the Roman Empire thought this was retribution from the gods caused by the legalization of Christianity. Some Christians even converted back to paganism because of this belief. In order to assure the faithful that they were not the cause of Rome’s fall, Augustine of Hippo wrote his book “The City of God.”
Augustine explained that the City of God is eternal, whereas the city of man (the Roman Empire) is not. Stating that the critics of Christians are hypocrites he proclaimed that they are only alive because God has given them life. Augustine taught that good times and turbulent times will come in history, so Christians should be ready for the Judgement Day at all times.
Augustine wrote that suicide is one of the greatest evils a person can do. He also advised that while Christians should not be concerned about the evil a person does, they should not consent to his temptations. Describing Rome as more immoral than ever, he stated that the empire is based on bloodshed and greed.
Man began in The City of God (the Garden of Eden) but lost it when Adam sinned. However, God will elect some faithful people on earth to be in the new City of God: heaven. The earthly city is no longer of God, so it is divided by war and famine. Augustine wrote that one man exercising dominance over another man was not intended by God, and wrote that slavery and war are a consequence of sin. He proclaimed that the laws of the ungodly have not true justice.
Augustine denied the importance of earthly politics, urging that the Church is the only power necessary on earth. The Church will serve as the guide to Christendom, he wrote, not any earthly kingdom.
Albigensianism is a form of Manicheanism which was widely practiced in southern France during the 13th century. The Cathars, a group of people in the French region of Languedoc, practiced this faith based upon the belief that there were two gods, one evil and one good. Moreover, Albigensianism taught that the spirit of a human is good but bodies are evil and keep people’s souls imprisoned.
In 1207, Raymond of Toulouse, who was going to be one of the leaders of the Crusade, refused to participate in the mission, so the Pope excommunicated him and ordered the King of France, Phillip Augustus, to move against him. In 1208, a papal legate was killed by Raymond’s men after trying to negotiate. Pope Innocent then condemned Raymond as a heretic and a murderer. The following year, Raymond fought with the Cathars against the French Crusaders. Between 1209 and 1229, the Christians massacred between 200,000 and 1 million Cathars in one of the worst genocides in Medieval history.
King Henry II of England.
Around the time of Kings Henry I (r. 1100-1135) and Henry II (r. 1154-1189), numerous legal sources were practiced and combined. The old Anglo-Saxon laws, canon laws, Norman laws, and Church laws were combined to create a standard common law across the kingdom. Trials, juries, and judges started being used, and the practice of being assumed innocent before being proven guilty also began.
When Henry I died in 1135, his daughter Matilda became Queen and had a son, Henry. Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, was king between 1135-1154. Henry II then became king in 1154 and tried to extend government control over the Church. He made his friend, Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. To his surprise, Becket actually fought for the Church’s independence instead of helping Henry II. After fleeing the country, Becket returned to England in 1170 and was murdered by Henry II’s men.
Signing of the Magna Carta by King John I of England.
After this incident, people wanted to extend the administration of justice into the royal court and make the king be held accountable for wrong doings. This push for justice was stalled under the rule of King Richard the Lionheart (r. 1189-1199), because he spent little time in England since he was leading the Third Crusade. Later, King John I (r. 1199-1216) had a conflict with the Pope over who could appoint the Bishop of Canterbury. In 1213, John I went on to accept the Pope’s candidate. It wasn’t until 1215, when John I imposed heavy taxes and initiated wars, that English noblemen forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which stated that taxation beyond a certain level was illegal and England’s kings would now be bound by law. The English Parliament was also established during this time in order to help the king rule and avoid tyranny. Under the rule of Henry III (r. 1216-1272), Parliament grew and was comprised of barons, churchmen, and representatives from towns across England.
During this same period, the French government became more consolidated under the reign of Kings Phillip III (r. 1270-1285) and Phillip the Fair (1285-1314), the latter of whom resurrected old Roman laws, making France a highly centralized nation and demanding that all French noblemen must first pay homage directly to him instead of their local dukes, which used to be the custom. Under his reign, Phillip the Fair imposed heavy taxes, debased the currency, taxed imports and exports, and started many wars.
King Phillip IV “The Fair” of France.
In 1302, the French created the Estates General, a representative assembly that was supposed to be similar to the English Parliament, but really had no real power. The French wanted France to be the main force in Europe, while also wishing to be independent from the Pope’s rule.
Between 397 and 400, Augustine of Hippo wrote the book “Confessions” in which he described his crisis of faith, his sinful youth, and his conversion to Christianity. One of the first major autobiographies written in latin, “Confessions” is considered by many to be one of the great masterpieces of Western literature.
Augustine wrote that in his early life, he was a Manichaeist and even worshiped the stars, stating that he practiced astrology and thought that the universe was not controlled by a god. Augustine explained that during his youth, he stole things for no reason simply because he found pleasure in it, that he had many lovers, and was lustful.
During his early adulthood, Augustine had a child with a woman to whom he was not married and did not love. However, Augustine decided to marry her, but had many mistresses. He was lost, and wrote that he did not understand the purpose of life. Thankfully, Augustine’s friends helped convince him that Christianity was the most logical and plausible religion in the world.
Eventually converting, Augustine was still depressed since he felt like he did not deserve to make it to God’s kingdom when he died. Because of their earthly sacrifice, Augustine stated that the martyrs have a place in heaven, but he will not due to his sacrifice to men instead of God.
Since the book “Confessions” was composed after Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and martyrdom was no longer a threat, Augustine believed more than ever that he could not obtain a place in heaven because of his sin. He said his lust and lack of faith made him melancholy, writing that “A starving beggar is happier than I.” Nevertheless, Augustine did conclude that Christianity was the true faith and that the trinity is the most rational conclusion to the question of the universe.
