Historically, the papacy was always located in the Vatican in Rome, however for a 68-year period in the 14th-Century it was centered in Avignon, France. A highly scandalous time in Church history, French monarchs had higher authority over the papacy than before and 111 out of the 134 cardinals were French. During this period there was also increased taxation of clergy and people illegally holding Church offices in order to earn higher income. Absentee pastors collected income while deputies did all the work and dioceses were left for generations without a bishop, due to the fact that these hierarchs were solely appointed for monetary gain. 

 Overall, this era produced many of the Church abuses that Martin Luther would later talk about in his Ninety-Five Theses since these problems were either created or got worse in Avignon. Despite the corruption, most of the seven Popes in office during the Avignon period were actually competent, but the bishops and cardinals gained massive power over the Popes and the Church as a whole. 

Pope Benedict XII (1334-1342) tried to reform the religious order and was careful about who he appointed. He also refused to wage war on behalf of Church territories, unlike how previous Popes had done. Although there were some good Popes, the papal office was still soured mainly because Popes like Clement VI (1342-1352) lived extremely luxurious, handsome and liberal lives and rewarded office seekers and appointed people to Church offices based on monetary gain. 

The Avignon papacy wasn’t the only crisis in Europe during the Fourteenth-Century, the others include harvest failures, the Hundred Years’ War, the Great Western Schism, the Black Death, and major social upheaval. The Great Western Schism was a period when there were two popes: one in Rome and one in Avignon, which caused all of Europe to be divided. 

However, the most famous and largest disaster was the Black Death, which killed 25-50% of Europe’s total population. It was especially deadly in urban areas, with most large living centers experiencing a death toll of 80-90%. Additionally, there were peasant uprisings across Europe, mainly in England, and from 1315-1317 crop failures and cattle disease are estimated to have killed 10-20% of Europe’s total population. 

Brought to Italy from Central Asia by boats that carried fleas on rats, the Black Death was a confluence of the bubonic and pneumonic plagues. 

Many people in Central Asia had built up a strong resistance to the plague, but not so in Europe. Because of the catastrophic numbers of death, people reacted in extreme ways, thinking God was punishing them for their sins. Some dedicated their lives to Christ, knowing they could die at any time, while others lived in debauchery for the short time they had left.

Although “The Song of Roland” is not historically accurate, it was considered by people to be a historical account at the time of its writing and inspired a fervent call to war against Islam and for more Crusades. Nevertheless, the poem is inconsistent, for instance the Franks had 120,000 men (20,000 of those were killed in action) at the beginning of the final battle, then somehow had 335,000. The pagan leader, Marsilie, had 20,000 men when the Franks went back to France, then had 400,000 troops when he attacked the rearguard. All of the Franks under Roland were killed, yet there was somehow an eyewitness. After Roland’s rearguard was attacked by Marsilie only three men remained: Roland, Turpin, and Gautier del Hum. Still, 40,000 cavalry and 1,000 infantry were supposedly afraid to march on these last three wounded knights. Miraculously, the injured archbishop Turpin killed 400 in his final stand, and Roland was slain as he tried to save the relics stored in his sword. 

Arriving to find his slaughtered rearguard, Charlemagne pursued the Muslims and won the battle after God stopped the setting of the sun in order to aid him. However the war was far from over, as the Muslim Emir arrived in Spain and vowed to Allah that he would defeat the French King, who returned to the battlefield and lamented Roland’s death. 

While he slept with his lance containing the spear of destiny, Charlemagne dreamt of two military conflicts but could not tell what either of the outcomes would be. When he awoke, there would be the final battle against the Emir: 335,000 Franks versus 3.5 million Muslims, who arrived in Spain on 4,000 ships. The two armies began to fight fiercely and God sent the Archangel Gabriel to aid Charlemagne. After the battle was over, a victorious Charlemagne now controlled all of Spain and sent the Arabs fleeing back to their homeland. Forced to convert to Christianity or die, many of the Muslims were executed, although 100,000 converted. Ganelon, the betrayer of Roland, received justice by being executed along with 29 of his relatives. Despite his unbelievable victory and his complete control of Spain, Charlemagne was informed by an angel that he had more major battles to fight against the evil forces of Islam. Hearing this, the battle-weary King wept and pulled his beard. 

The poem offers the sovereignty of God as the explanation for the stunning victories won by Charlemagne. Along with being a battle cry against Islam, the influential work is also about hubris and death. Roland was prideful, Charlemagne was not; rather he listened to the council. Described as a hero for his sacrifice leading to Charlemagne’s ultimate triumph, Roland was also responsible for his own death and 20,000 others due to his self-absorbed nature.