Developed in England starting in the 12th Century, Common Law is the idea that the “law of the land” would be gradually established during the course of various court decisions that build upon previous court decisions. Over time, this resulted in a stable body of governance. Common Law in addition to judicial precedent, was derived from numerous sources including Anglo-Saxon customs, canon law, Norman law, and merchant law, drawing from all these different aspects and standardized them.

Some of the main principles of English Common Law are: jury trials, presumption of innocence, accused’s rights of access to evidence, and abolishment of torture to gain evidence. Under kings Henry I (1100-1135) and Henry II (1154-1189), English law became more and more systematic, but there was still a central problem: in many instances, the king did not have to abide by the law or pay taxes. 

Under the reign of John I (1199-1216), John debased currency and unjustly taxed noblemen and vassals. John also was involved in a feud with Pope Innocent III, who excommunicated the King after he stole church property. Realizing that he had too many enemies, John was forced to consent to the Magna Carta after being confronted by English noblemen and aristocrats. Signed in 1215, the Magna Carta was a monumental document which limited the king’s power, saying: the King is under the law like everyone else, no tax shall be imposed on the people unless agreed to by a council, and no one can be imprisoned without trial. 

After John I, the growth of Parliament began in England during the reigns of Henry III and Edward I (1216-1307). Convened in 1254, the “Great Council” of two barons from each county, churchmen, and representatives of towns met to discuss and monitor what the king was doing. In 1295, the first complete Parliament was established and prolaimed “what touches all, should be approved by all,” meaning everyone has a say in the taxes being imposed. 

Philip IV “The Fair” (1285-1314) of France was similar to John I of England in that he had an elevated view of the powers of monarchs and his issues with the Church and the Pope. Inspired by Roman Law, he believed that the monarch was meant to be as powerful as possible. Starting in 1302 a representative assembly like the English parliament was created in France called the “Estates General.” However, it was different from the parliament, as it was much weaker, had much less say in the matters of the king, and convened less frequently. After Philip, serfdom was in decline, industry grew in cities, and many people moved from agriculture to the cities.

During the reign of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, there was an intense persecution of Christians. One of the martyred was Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, who was an aged man when he was executed in 155 A.D. The Martyrdom of Polycarp was a written account of his death.

Marcus Aurelius was a stoic philosopher and was angered when Polycarp refused to offer sacrifice to him. The account of Polycarp’s steadfast faith was meant to inspire listeners, showing Polycarp as a model of the Christian martyr. At that time, Roman authorities regarded Christians as atheists, but Polycarp dismissed the crowds during his execution as atheists. 

Regarded as the perfect martyr by his Christians contemporaries at the time, Polycarp publicly prayed during his death and was burned in fire which did not harm him. He was finnaly killed by stabbing and called himself “a burnt offering.” 

Another famous account of martyrdom was Perpetua, who rejected her father’s plea to recant her Christian faith. She was then imprisoned for three days, during which she experienced visions that are described in her account. Eventually, Perpetua was executed along with four others in Carthage. 

Composed around 400, Augustine’s “Confessions” was the first autobiography written in the West. Directed at God, Augustine wanted readers to hear his string of sins. Also written for the composition to serve as a guide to understanding the nature of confessions. 

Augustine was converted to Christianity around 387 and was a master of rhetoric, before his conversion he had been a Manichean, which was the philosophic view that everything in the world is either good and evil. In his autobiography, Augustine described his conversion and psychological struggles in making the transition from Manicheanism to Christianity, citing that when he was a Manichean, he wished to have strong faith like his Christian mother, but couldn’t quite bring himself to convert. Initially, his autobiography was written to be read by Church clergy and scholars, not the general public. Nevertheless, Augustine became the most important thinker in the Western World until at least 1000 A.D.

A common misconception about the Crusades is that they were completely unprovoked. This is far from the truth, as the Muslims had already taken two-thirds of the Christian world before the start of the First Crusade. These invaded lands included Asia Minor, the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain. Another false fact about the Crusades is that they were committed purely for monetary gain. Actually, starting a Crusade was extremely expensive, forcing most warriors who joined to sell land in order to pay for their campaigns. 

The First Crusade was fought from 1069-1099 and was started when Pope Urban II put out a call to Crusade and reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. With the large numbers of Christians that joined the movement, there were two waves: the Peasants’ Crusade and the professional knights. Led by Peter the Hermit, many poor peasants believers joined and advanced through the Balkans to Constantinople but were destroyed after not receiving adequate provisions. 

Although the second wave consisted of professional knights who were skilled, they failed to formulate a detailed strategy and supply lines. Despite this, they did manage to conquer Nicea in 1097 as well as strategic positions in Asia Minor. 

During the winter of 1097-1098 widespread desertion and disease occurred in both Christian and Muslim armies. Continuing on, Crusaders arrived in Antioch but were trapped inside the walled city. Miraculously, after months of being besieged inside the city, they dug up the Holy Spear and defeated the Muslim forces in a pitched battle. In the end, the First Crusade was mostly a victory for the Christians, with Jerusalem and vast swaths of the Holy Land being retaken, and with the establishment of the four Crusader States of Antioch, Edessa, Tripoli, and Jerusalem. While the First Crusade was a victory, there were many instances of disorganization in their armies, as well as the massacring of the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Sadly, these acts would happen on a larger scale during later Crusades. 

The Second Crusade (1147-1149) was carried out to retake the Crusader State of Edessa. It ended in complete disaster, as the Christian forces were defeated in Damascus before reaching Edessa. In the mid-12th century, Muslim leader Saladin had great success in unifying a vast territory around Palestine and recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. King Frederick Barbarrosa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I Lionheart of England came together to once again reclaim the Holy Land in 1189. 

However Byzantine Emperor Isaac II was suspicious of Frederick Barbarossa and ended up negotiating with Saladin to halt Frederick’s progress. Barbarossa was killed in action in Armenia, causing the German army to fall apart with him. Despite this, the Third Crusade contained some victories for the Christians, who were led by Richard Lionheart and Philip Augustus who conquered Cyprus, Tyre, and Jaffa, but still failed to retake Jerusalem.