Despite being created in the mid-12th century, the Holy Roman Empire would go on to be one of the longest-lasting political units in European history. One of the main reasons for this endurance was its decentralization, as the empire was composed of many smaller duchies and fiefdoms, making it easier to rule. 

In 1152, Frederick Barbarossa became King of Germany. He wanted to fight back against decentralization and sought to restore imperial authority over not only Germany but also Lombardy in Northern Italy. Ruling from 1155-1190, he was the first Holy Roman Emperor and imagined the glory of the old Roman Empire. This attempt at centralization by Barbarossa did not sit well with the papacy, due to the fact that Lombardy was inside their sphere of influence in Italy. If it was taken over, the Pope would lose much of the Catholic Church’s power and influence over other secular rulers. Because of this, the Lombards and the Papal States allied, with Frederick responding by burning the city of Milan in Northern Italy. Ultimately, Frederick was defeated by the combined Papal and Lombard force, and was forced to make up with the Pope and recognize Lombardy as a sovereign nation.  After Barbarossa’s death in 1190, there were two candidates for Holy Roman Empire elected by two different families: the Hohenstaufens and Welfs. The Welf candidate, Otto, promised to obey the church while the Hohenstaufen candidate and Barbarossa’s son, Frederick II looked like he was going to follow in his father’s footsteps. In 1209, Otto became Emperor but surprisingly went back on his promises to the Pope when he invaded Southern Italy. In response to this, Pope Innocent II supported Frederick II who essentially became de facto Emperor after Otto’s position crumbled. Despite the support from Innocent II, Frederick II eventually became a larger foe than his father  after Sicily was fully conquered with all of their Church properties plundered. While he was victorious in Sicily, Frederick II focused so much attention on Italy that his imperial power in Germany was compromised. Frederick II was later excommunicated and intended to march on Lyon and imprison the Pope, but died in 1250. After the reigns of Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II, it was much too late to centralize the Holy Roman Empire as the German princes became too powerful. Germany would continue to be highly decentralized until the establishment of the German Empire in the 19th century.

“The Song of Roland” was the most popular epic poem written in Ancient Greece since The Iliad or The Odyssey. Composed after 1015, it was meant to persuade people to fight after Pope Urban II’s call to crusade. The earliest full copy still intact is from the mid-1100s and is in the Anglo-Norman language. Extremely popular when it was composed, the poem was still widely read up until the mid-1300s, with translations written in German, Dutch, and old Norse.

Although it was based on a true event, Charlemagne’s Invasion of Spain in 778, the famous work contains many mythical aspects. Charlemagne invaded to assist one Muslim king to oust a different Muslim ruler. During the raid he also attacked a Basque city, where the residents were depicted as Muslim but in reality were mostly pagan. The rearguard of Charlemagne’s army which was attacked by the Basques, was led by Roland. This period in Spanish history dwhen Christian forces attempted to get rid of all Muslim forces was known as the “reconquista” and lasted from 722-1492. The Muslim incursions were crushing and reached Southern France until they were crucially defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Repeating that Charlemagne was over 200 years old during his reign, while truthfully he was only 35 is an example of a legendary aspect to this epic poem. 

Charlemagne had defeated all the Muslims in Spain except Marsilie who had only 20,000 troops. Trying to deceive Charlemagne, Marsilie sent Blanacandrin as his emissary. Ganelon, Roland’s step-father, advised Charlemagne to take the offer of peace, while Roland said to reject it. After this, Ganelon and Blanacandrin swore to kill Roland. Somehow, Marsilie had accrued 400,000 troops, forcing the Frankish forces to depart to France. Suckered by Ganelon, Roland led the rearguard which was meant to protect against attacks during a retreat. Marsilie’s plan was to have 100,000 soldiers attack Roland in the first wave, then 300,000 more in wave two. Due to honor, Roland refused to blow the trumpet to signify that he needed help from Charlemagne, proclaiming that if he was to die, he wanted to be remembered as a hero, not a coward. Despite all this, Oliver, the second in command of the rearguard, begged him to blow the trumpet. Miraculously, the 100,000 Muslims of the first wave were defeated by only 20,000 led by Roland. In the second wave, 4,000 more Muslims were slain, but all of the senior knights of Roland’s army were then killed one-by-one. 

These deaths are described in great detail in the poem. Down to only 60 men, they valiantly launched a desperate last-ditch assault on the remaining 100,000 Muslims, who fled in terror. Roland finally accepted Oliver’s pleas to blow the trumpet for assistance. Charlemagne heard this and mounted up to return. Nevertheless, Oliver was killed in battle and Ganelon’s betrayal was discovered.